Internationalisation Strategies Taken by Xerox, Ricoh and Canon Dissertation

Internationalization Strategies Taken by Xerox, Ricoh and Canon - Dissertation Example The case investigation features the methodologies and systems that these associations had taken in the Chinese office gadgets market to beat the difficulties that it models for organizations twisted on internationalization in this setting with exceptionally particular attributes. Substance Internationalization Strategies Taken by Xerox, 1 Ricoh and Canon to Respond to Challenges 1 Presented By China's Emerging Market 1 Abstract 2 Contents 3 Section One 5 Introduction 5 Section Two 8 Writing Review 8 2.1 Internationalization Challenges 8 2.3.1 Local Market Disadvantages 8 2.3.2 Disproportionate Operating Costs and Denial of Benefits Accorded to Domestic Firms 9 2.3.3 Cultural Distance and Market Entry Modes 10 2.3.4 Political Bargaining and Positioning 12 2.3.5 Institutional Differences and Corruption 13 2.3.6 Local Density and WFOE Performance 13 2.3.7 Organizational Capabilities 14 2.3.3 Administrative Heritage 15 2.3.4 Organizational Structure 17 2.2 Internationalization Strategies 17 2.2.1 Exporting 19 2.2.2 International Licensing Agreements 19 2.2.3 International Joint Ventures and Strategic Alliances 20 2.2.4 Wholly-Owned Foreign Enterprise 21 2.4 Doing Business in China 22 2.5 The Global Office Electronics Industry 23 Section Three 25 Exploration Design 25 3.1 Case Study Approach 25 3.2 Data Collection 26 3.3 Framework for Analysis 26 Section Four 28 Case Studies 28 4.1 Short-Term Challenges 28 4.1.1 Cultural Distance and Organizational Capabilities 29 4.1.2 Political Bargaining and Positioning 32 4.2 Long-Term Challenges 34 4.2.1 Administrative Heritage 35 4.2.2 Organizational Structure 37 4.3 China Strategies of Office Electronics Firms 39 4.4 Discussion 41 4.4.1 Short-Term Challenges 43 4.4.2 Long-Term Challenges 43 4.4.3...The innovation for office hardware is firmly connected with correspondences, which was idealized in the US during the 1920s. Thereupon until the 1970s, the US was the coherent world pioneer in this industry, after which industry initiative moved to Western Europe. Going into the 1990s, Japan broke into the world monetary first class and set up predominance over this industry, including all assembling exercises identified with gadgets. Presently the eventual fate of this industry is in China, the world’s most crowded country with 1.3 billion individuals and the pivot of Asia, which thus includes 60 percent of the total populace. Office hardware is a $88.8 billion industry worldwide starting at 2004 and as yet developing, with Xerox, Canon and Ricoh as the worldwide huge three. The three are simply part of more than 600,000 worldwide ventures, spoke to by around 800,000 auxiliaries, that push internationalization in the worldwide market (Lou, 2002). By and large, Xerox, Canon and Ricoh represent around 28 percent of the worldwide market through activities in for the most part created nations. Such piece of the overall industry, enormous however it might be, is demonstrating less and less secure as the workplace gadgets industry in created markets gets immersed and stuffed (Datamonitor, 2005). For proceeded with feasibility and long haul development, the organizations included need to turn their sights towards developing markets like China where future development openings lie. China is an especially alluring business sector, not just for its sheer size and modest work advantage.

National cinemas are structurally marginal, fragile and dependent on Essay

National films are fundamentally peripheral, delicate and subject to outside assistance. What esteem, assuming any, does a national film ha - Essay Example Everybody profits by an enthusiastic national film industry, from the individuals who are associated with making the motion pictures to the individuals who watch and even society all in all, since thoughts are transmitted from movies to watchers to individuals around them. One exceptionally away from of the significance of money related help is the situation of Alberta, Canada. In 1973 Alberta made its own commonplace film board to energize Alberta film creations at the exhortation of the National Film Board. Different regions promptly followed the achievement of this arrangement, so Canada had both a National and Provincial film subsidizing in every territory, and it was significant, in light of the fact that Canada’s districts are for the most part extraordinary. The ethnic and national legacy of various areas originates from various floods of migration in addition to the additional societies of the First countries People. Regardless of its wonderful accomplishment until 199 6, Ralph Klein went on a cost removing binge and cut the financing in 1996. The Alberta film industry went from an effective $150-million of every 1995 to $50-million by 1997 (FRASER, 2011). 2/3s of the creation moved to British Columbia. Indeed, even the Alberta and national governments lost cash on this arrangement, since the Alberta business had made more expense salary then the expense of the financing. When the financing evaporated the ability followed the business move to BC. â€Å"Film is fit for both painting and molding society.†(Bellucci, 2010) It is a very much explored end that film that records parts of any contention takes care of a â€Å"us versus them† recognition and will in general become an image of culture and make a â€Å"ethos of conflict† (Benziman, 2013). This can have an intelligently proportional impact on how the various groups see the contention, and on the way of life in general. The contention shapes national personality, while chan ges in national character impact the course of the contention. (Bar-Tal, Raviv, Raviv, and Dgani-Hirsh 2009; Bar-tal 2010) So motion pictures that portray present or past clashes change how they are seen and how the members feel about themselves as well as other people. The contention doesn't need to be equipped, or even genuine, yet simply its reality and the affirmation of the distinctions and the view of one being unrivaled impacts the national perspectives. This progressions the â€Å"National Narrative† of the nations in question, which, thusly changes future history. Since the EU was made to support reasonable exchange without taxes. Any state appropriation or tax reductions basically disrupts this norm. Be that as it may, on account of the apparent requirement for help of social exercises in the part expresses, the European Union presented the Maastricht Treaty. It permits part states to help autonomous movies essential to their societies. The thought was to permit par t states to help non-business movie making insofar as exchange and economies were not legitimately influenced. In any case, a few issues created when characterizing what sorts of movies would qualify. France and the UK were the fundamental dissidents. France believes all film to be social and important, so needs to help all film, even business creations. The formation of a meaning of â€Å"difficult films† for starting undertakings, whach are viewed as deserving of help, was insufficient for them. The UK embraced an exceptionally nitty gritty meaning of a â€Å"difficult film† utilizing the chance of benefit, the size of the intended interest group and the prevalence of the topic as standards. Essentially, the thought was to

Fathers And Sons Essays - Fathers And Sons, Bazarov, Family, Father

Father's And Sons Turgenov's Fathers and Sons has a few characters who hold solid perspectives on the world. Pavel accepts that Russia needs structure from such things as foundation, religion, and class pecking order. Madame Odintsov sees the world as basic inasmuch as she keeps it efficient and liberated from impedance. This paper will concentrate on maybe the most fascinating and complex character in Fathers and Children: Bazarov. Vladimir Nabakov composes that Turgenov takes his animal [B] out of a willful example and spots him in the typical universe of possibility. By looking at Bazarov this paper will offer this expression more clear to the peruser. Utilizing skepticism as a beginning stage we will take a gander at Bazarov's perspectives and translations of science, government and organization. Next we will go to the issue connections. At last we look at Bazarov's passing and the shocking realities it uncovers. These issues joined with the topic of agnosticism will demonstrate that opportunity, or destiny is a solid power which can only with significant effort be discredited. Skepticism as an idea is utilized all through Fathers and Sons. To increase a better comprehension of the thoughts behind this term we should take a gander at what Bazarov says regarding the matter. We base our lead on what we perceive as valuable... the most helpful thing we can do is to deny - thus we renounce (123). The base idea of agnosticism is to deny or nullify, and as we learn later in a similar section, to invalidate everything. With this 'annihilation' of everything from science to workmanship there is no structure for skeptics, as Bazarov says That isn't our issue (126). Skeptics see the current structure of society as worried about such trivialties as 'craftsmanship' and 'parliamentism' while disregarding genuine issues, for example, food, opportunity, and similarly. Agnostics know about these social burdens and henceforth intellectually preclude to perceive any from securing the present position or organizations which just serve to sustain a legend. Bazarov concurs with the explanation that agnosticism confine[s] [oneself] to misuse (126). ... I don't put stock in anything: and what is science-science in the theoretical? There are sciences as there are exchanges and callings, however dynamic science simply doesn't exist (98). For Bazarov anything that isn't substantial and concrete doesn't exist. Brain science, quantum mechanics, neurochemistry would be laughed at by Bazarov. It appears to be particular that Bazarov would state, ... these days we chuckle at medication by and large, and venerate nobody, (197) while simultaneously he seeks after a profession as a specialist. The medication that Bazarov utilizes bargains in the 'unadulterated sciences', that is his thoughts originates from training not hypothesis. By taking a gander at Bazarov we find that his work affirms his agnostic thoughts. To clarify, one just need take a gander at Bazarov's fundamental center; the analyzation of frogs. Each time he looks around the life systems of a frog he sees they all have comparative structures (heart, liver, digestive system's and so forth). People likewise share a typical interior life structures. Theoretical ideas like position, religion or science to not normally exist inside individuals and are just made 'genuine' by others. Bazarov knows this and his examinations affirm his defiant disposition. Bazarov says, All men are comparative, in soul just as in body ... what's more, the purported moral characteristics are the equivalent within each one of us (160). Similarly as with general science Bazarov feels nothing towards workmanship. ... You accept that I have no inclination for craftsmanship - and it is valid, I haven't (159). Craftsmanship is inconsequential to Bazarov and achieves nothing, in this manner he doesn't remember it. It is the equivalent with nature, Bazarov was somewhat detached to the delights of nature (169). There is an adage, Excellence is in the eye of the spectator. What if the onlooker has no eye for excellence? Such is the case with Bazarov. The point for Bazarov is that style in workmanship and nature just serve to redirect consideration from squeezing issues, for example, defilement in society and basic change. These are what concerns an agnostics, not the most recent exposition from Pushkin or painting from Alexander. Organizations, for example, instruction, government and built up power are hated by Bazarov. Everybody should teach himself (105). Since inculcation of the built up society starts with instruction, a skeptic should see training from behind the barrel of a shotgun. Rationale is of no utilization Bazarov, You needn't bother with rationale, I assume, to place a bit of bread in your mouth (123). The agnostic plan, that is, the requirement for tearing down of structure is past rationale what's more, is as essential as eating or relaxing. Likewise Bazarov

Three Types Of Speeches Essays (1556 words) - Communication

Three Types Of Speeches To respond to this inquiry I will utilize three sorts of discourses. Of those three kinds of talks I will make three discourses to give. The discourse arranges that I will utilize are talks to engage, addresses to illuminate, and talks to convince. For my discourse to engage, I will discuss my life. For my discourse to advise, I will discuss drums. For my discourse to convince, I will discuss how TV brutality effectsly affects kids. To compose my discourse to engage, I would begin by making a diagram to pass by. On the diagram, I would isolate into bunches the most significant pieces of my life. The primary gathering of my life that I would discuss is about me growing up and where I lived. The second gathering I would discuss is my inclinations and leisure activities. The exact opposite thing I would discuss is my life at the present time. I would likewise incorporate a presentation and an end. So as to all the more likely assistance the audience members to imagine what I am discussing, I would bring pictures of things that have to do with my life. I would likewise make an overhead with the blueprint on it so they could track with the discourse better. I would make certain to move around and use hand signals to make focuses all the more obviously. This would likewise hold the enthusiasm of the audience members better. I figure this arrangement would be useful to my audience members since it is extremely sorted out, and it incorporates numerous things to hold their advantage. To arrange my discourse to advise, I would again begin by making a blueprint. To begin, I would start by clarifying the essential pieces of a drum set and what they do. I would then clarify who makes the pieces of the drums and cymbals. Next I would discuss how drums and cymbals are made. I would then clarify what they are made of. I would again utilize a presentation and an end. My visual guide that I would utilize would be an overhead containing the fundamental parts to a drum set. This would be so the audience members could perceive what I was discussing. I would likewise bring pictures of various drum sets. During my discourse, I would make certain to move around the front of the room and utilize my hands while talking. I feel that this arrangement and the visual guides would be the most ideal approach to enable the audience members to comprehend the discourse. For my discourse to convince, I would discuss TV viciousness and the impacts it has on kids. I would begin by making a diagram containing the pieces of my discourse. The initial segment is discussion about how TV brutality triggers hostility in kids. The subsequent part would be the means by which it places dread in kids. The third part I would discuss would be the means by which youngsters become desensitized to certifiable brutality by watching viciousness on TV. I would remember a presentation and an end for my discourse also. For a visual guide, I would utilize an overhead containing insights to demonstrate my hypothesis. I would make certain to remember for my discourse the references from which I inferred my data. This is significant particularly in a powerful discourse on the grounds that the audience members are bound to be convinced on the off chance that they can see genuine insights from power figures. I would make certain to utilize hand signals and be lively to hold the consideration of the audience members. It is significant that I hold their consideration so they can consider the to be for what it's worth. To close this half of the task, I will go over the things I have quite recently discussed. First I discussed how to do a discourse of diversion and what might deliver it a fruitful discourse. Second I discussed how to do a discourse of data and how to give it an effective discourse. At that point I discussed how to do a discourse of influence and how to best convince the audience members. Much obliged to you and have a great day!!!! Question 3 This inquiry to me is significantly harder than the first.

Generating forecasts Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Creating estimates - Essay Example Since the present and future clients have more cash to purchase the company’s merchandise and ventures, it is conceivable to foresee an expansion in the acquisition of the stores’ item deals and administrations incomes. Measurable devices help settle on progressively educated store the executives choices. In a similar way, the expansion in certain autonomous variables may show a potential decrease in the needy factor. For instance, an expansion in the government’s charges will lessen the workers’ bring home pays or pay rates. Thusly, the diminished bring home pays will decrease the workers’ buying power. Subsequently, the chiefs must expect a decrease in the stores’ deals and administration incomes. With the diminished salary, the representatives must chop down their avoidable costs. The table 1 information shows the organization can create the future weeks’ anticipated incomes (Johnson, 2010). The normal future deals are grounded dependent on the over different free factors. The reliant variable is the incomes. As needy variable, the business yield is regularly reliant on the numerous free factors. The above table shows that the contenders regularly sell their items at costs that are sensible. A sensible value thinks about a few important elements. One of the significant variables is the interest for the items. A high customers’ interest for the items will urge the stores to expand their selling costs. In any case, a low interest for the stores’ items and administrations convinces the head supervisors to offer limited costs. With the limits, the clients will exploit the value decreases. A value decrease will ordinarily trigger a more appeal for the stores’ items and administrations (Johnson, 2010). The above table 2 shows the outline of the measurable findings’ relapse examination for the ten weeks. The Multiple relapse yield is demonstrated to be 0.63. The R Squared figure is 0.40. The Adjusted R squared figure is - .0950.

Do These 3 Things to Maintain Your Sanity and Write an Awesome Essay

Do These 3 Things to Maintain Your Sanity and Write an Awesome Essay Do These 3 Things to Maintain Your Sanity and Write an Awesome Essay Do These 3 Things to Maintain Your Sanity and Write an Awesome Essay Regardless of when you decide to write, whether it is three months or three days before the deadline, it can be easy to fall ill to college essay fever. Fortunately, we have helpful tips to share for maintaining your sanity! They may seem basic, but they can be easy to forget. Hydrate. Don’t underestimate the importance of H2O. Lack of proper hydration is often cited as the cause of midday fatigue and can lead to a decrease in alertness and concentration. Pour yourself a glass of the finest water you can find. Eat. Hanger is real. Whether you get cranky or fade when your lunch wears off, its important to keep snacks around to ensure your mind is awake. Try healthy fats like avocados and coconuts to keep your synapses firing at full speed without encountering a sugar crash. Move. Get a little old school. Go outside and feel the sun on your face while you stretch your legs. Maybe do push ups in between paragraphs. Afternoon yoga might stretch both your abs and your mind. Moving might welcome accidental idea time. When you clear your head, good ideas that were just under the surface before finally have the space to emerge. Dont believe us? Watch this TED talk! About CEA HQView all posts by CEA HQ » Want a professional proofread? We're here to help. CONTACT US »

Emmett Tills Death And End Of Segregation - Free Essay Example

In January 1, 1863, Abraham Lincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation to end slavery in America. However, many whites after that believed that the slaves just set free shouldnt get the same rights as whites. So, the Jim Crow Laws were created in order for blacks to not have the same rights as whites. Jim Crow laws state that blacks have to use different water fountains, schools, movie theaters, than whites. Groups such as the KKK were created also to prevent blacks from having these rights. So, even though they werent slaves, they still didnt have full freedom. Many blacks in the south were angered but had no power, but some people did have power. One of those people is Emmett Louis Till. Emmett Louis Till was born   on July 25, 1941, and he was going to change the lives of countless blacks in America. However, since Emmett was from the North, he was unfamiliar with the etiquette blacks were expected to show to whites. In the South blacks were treated miserably due to the Jim Crow laws. Due to these laws Emmett Louis Till died. It all began at   Bryants Grocery Meat Market in Money, Mississippi. Emmett was left there alone in front of the cashier, Carolyn Bryant. Reportedly, he talked to her in a flirtatious way, and whistled to her on his way out. She didnt like what Emmett did. Then, on August 26th, Ms. Bryants husband came back from a work trip. She immediately told her husband what happened that day regarding Emmett. Mr. Bryant and his half-brother, J.W. Milam, set up plans to kidnap Emmett. Then finally, on August 27th Bryant and Milam sought out to find Emmett. Around a few hours passed, they found out that Emmett was staying at his uncles house, Moses Wright. At around 2:30 in the morning, Milam and Bryant arrived at Wrights house east of Money, Mississippi. Bryant knocked on the door and it was opened by Moses Wright. Bryant then went into the house, in order to find Emmett. Soon enough, Bryant found Emmett, put him in his car, then drove off with Emmett. According to Bryant and Milams interview after the incident, they [justed whipped] himand [scared] some sense into him. Milam said they drove Emmett trying to find a cliff with a hundred-foot drop down to the Mississippi River. After a while, they failed to find the cliff, so the men drove to a barn near Drew, Mississippi. Willie Reed, who was a witness at the barn, said he heard sounds including hollering and whipping coming from the barn, which were sounds which Emmett made when Bryant and Milam beat him up and killed him. After the truck left the farm, it stopped at J. W. Milams store in Glendora. A witness noticed that blood [was] running out of the bed of the truck and pooling on the ground. When the blood pointed to be Milams fault, he reportedly said that he killed a deer, and the blood was from the deer. When Milam was told it wasnt the season for deers, he pulled back the tarp covering Emmett to reveal his dead body and said, This is what happens to smart niggers. Later on, Bryant and Milam decided to put Emmets dead body into the Tallahatchie River because they didnt want to keep the dead body on them incase something like that happens again. Before they threw his body into the river, they find something in order for his body to sink. so , they stopped by a store to purchase a heavy fan that would sink his dead body. When they arrived at the Tallahatchie River, they tied the fan to Emmetts neck, and put Emmett into the river. Three days later, a boy named Robert Hodges, found Emmett while he was fishing, eight miles away from where Emmett was put into the water. While Emmett was on the boat, he admired the silver ring on Emmets finger given to him by his father, Louis Till. Soon a man and his assistant walked up to the boat and lifted Emmetts body from the boat and placed it in a casket. Then the mans assistant gave the silver ring to Wright, who later gave it to LeFlore County Deputy Sheriff John Ed Cothran. When they put Emmett into the casket, Bradley Wanted to leave the casket open to show how bad blacks were being treated. Bradley once said, Unless an example is made of the lynchers of Emmett, it wont be safe for a Negro to walk the streets anywhere in America. Less than a day after Emmetts disappearance, both Roy Bryant and J. W. Milam were arrested for kidnapping, and admitting that they took Emmett from his uncles home. On September 3, H. C. Strider, Counties Sheriff, stated that the body pulled out of the river didnt seem like Emmett Tills. Strider said, the body looked more like a grown man instead of a young boy and probably had been sitting in the river for four or five days. Which is longer than Emmett, since Emmett was in the river for only three days. After collecting these theories, Strider said that Emmett is still alive. Later on, all five white law yers decided to be on Milam and Bryants side in the Bryant-Milam Trial. When the state began presenting the case, more than seventy reporters (some from far away distances including London), packed the courtroom. Moses Wright was the states first witness. Wright testified that Milam and Bryant came to his home on August 28 and carried his young relative, Emmett till, to their truck and left. When Wright was asked to identify the two men, Wright rose from is seat dramatically and pointed at the defendants. Wright also told jury members he identified the body pulled from the river as being Emmett Till, and recognized the silver ring in the courtroom as being the ring he saw Emmett wear. Soon the state called to the stand Emmetts mother, Mamie Bradley, in hope to eliminate all reasonable lies that can be said. She also identified the ring that Emmett was wearing. A series of prosecution witness left no reasonable doubt that Milam and Bryant took Emmett, but very little doubt that they killed him hours later. Later on, on Thursday afternoon, the state took a break and the defense presented its first witness, Carolyn Bryant. Carolyn Bryant described the August 24 incident with Emmett and her at the Bryants Grocery Meat Market. Bryant said that just after dark with only Emmett and her in the store, Emmett was flirting with her and being touchy as she stood by the candy counte r to collect money. She said she got her hand out of Emmetts with much difficulty as Emmett asked her, How about a date, baby? and when she tried to walk away from Emmett, she said, Emmett grabbed her by the waist. I was just scared to death. After Mrs. Bryants Testimony, the jury members went to discuss if Milam and Bryant are guilty or not. 68 minutes later after the jury members had their discussion, they returned to the courtroom to tell everyone that Milam and Bryant are Not Guilty. Within four years after Emmetts murder trial, about 20% of black population in Tallahatchie County had left the town because they were scared they were going to die. Milams and Bryants stores, were boycotted and within fifteen months all the stores were either closed or sold due to insufficient money. Blacks refused to work on the Milam farm, and J.W. Milam found a new job which was bootlegging. Selling their store after the trial upset many people on their side. Sheriff Strider was heavy attacked in both national and Mississippi newspapers. Also in 1957, Strider barely escaped an attempt for people to kill him. None of the other men who participated in the kidnapping of Emmett till ever faced charges, However the Department of Justice reopened the case in 2004, and in 2005, Emmetts body was dug out from the ground by the Cook County coroner to perform a postmortem examination on the body. After analyzing the body, the body was identified as Emmett Tills body, and metallic fragments in the skull showed he was shot with a 0.45 caliber gun all for just a lie that Ms. Bryant said to her husband. Overall, Emmett Tills death helped segregation to end. Many people realize that whites were treating blacks so bad, that they needed to change. In August 28, 1963, 100 years after the Emencaplation Proclamation was written, a person named Martin Luther King Jr. gave a speech that had the biggest impact on ending segregation. Then, with all of these events combined, segregation was gone for good. However, although the death of Emmett Till was very tragic, Emmett died in order to change the way the other blacks in America lived the rest of their lives.

Dunkirk Evacuation in World War II

According To “College Drinking,” Almost Two Out Of Three

According to â€Å"College Drinking,† almost two out of three college students engage in binge drinking. Binge drinking is a pattern of drinking that brings blood alcohol concentration (BAC) levels to 0.08 g/dL or higher (â€Å"College Drinking†). Many parents, guardians, and psychologists believe that college students binge drink because they think drinking is an integral part of their higher education. Similar to peer pressure, college students drink because the rest of the student body drinks. Furthermore, almost sixty percent of college students ages eighteen to twenty-two binge drink on a regular basis (â€Å"College Drinking†). Binge drinking can result in several health and safety risks. Also, binge drinking could lead to car crashes,†¦show more content†¦Bars, nightclubs, and other licensed alcohol establishments are very unsafe for college students (â€Å"Should the Drinking Age...†). Also, new college students are extremely vulnerable in the first six weeks of their freshmen year (â€Å"College Drinking†). Therefore, lowering the drinking age to eighteen will allow new college students to engage in binge drinking at an incredibly young age. Also, seventy-six percent of licensed alcohol establishments cater to intoxicated patrons (â€Å"Should the Drinking Age...†). As a result, nearly half of the intoxicated consumers are arrested for driving while intoxicated (â€Å"Should the Drinking Age...†). The intoxicated drivers pose a serious risk to pedestrians, drivers, and college students. If the drinking age was lowered to eighteen, college students would be exposed to a greater amount of danger which can lead to fatal injuries, car wrecks, and assaults (â€Å"College Drinking†). Do parents or guardians want to expose their children to the danger of intoxicated people? The majority of the population would agree that lowering the drinking age to eighteen would result in greater danger to col lege students. Many people are opposed to lowering the drinking age to eighteen because the majority of eighteen to twenty-one year old college students are not equipped with the necessary skill set to be responsible while drinking (â€Å"Should the Drinking Age†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ). Due to the vast amount of danger posed by drinking, several people believeShow MoreRelated Teenage Drinking and Its Effects on the Development of Alcoholism Later1613 Words   |  7 PagesTeenage Drinking and Its Effects on the Development of Alcoholism Later Teenage drinking is something that goes on every day. No matter how many videos you show to kids about drinking they will still drink. Surveys show that the average teen seventeen and up spends $475.00 a year on liquor, mostly beer; thats more than books, soda, coffee, juice and milk combined. 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College is an excellentRead MoreSubstance Abuse and Mental Health Treatment Barriers: Military Life vs. Civilian Life1259 Words   |  6 PagesSubstance Abuse and Mental Health Treatment Barriers: Military Life vs. Civilian Life Marina Herrera Butte College Abstract This paper explores the interesting relationship between substance abuse and mental health problems among military and civilian life. As well as stigma barriers to treatment within a military vs. a civilian setting. The article â€Å"Substance Abuse and Mental Health Treatment in the Military: Lessons Learned and a Way Forward† written by Katie Witkiewitz and Armando

Whigs vs Jacksonian Democrats - Political Parties - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 2 Words: 748 Downloads: 3 Date added: 2019/07/31 Category Politics Essay Level High school Tags: Political Parties Essay Did you like this example? Prior to the year 1820, there was no such thing as the democratic and republican parties. The current year is 2018, and the United States now has a better-developed party system. The world has evolved since the nineteenth century, but the United States politics would not be what it is, without the cultivation of the Whig party and the Jacksonian Democrats. Both the Whig party and Jacksonian Democrats had their differences that made the two parties what they were. The idea of having two separate parties did not just appear out of thin air, like most things, some form of event transpired in order to cause a change to occur. The two-party system began after Andrew Jackson became president of the United States. Jackson was known as the president of the common people. Jackson was not like most presidents prior to him. When he was elected president and had his inauguration, he invited many citizens to the white house to celebrate the occasion. Inviting random people without any social status was uncommon for such a prestigious event. Also, the idea of having a president that was a war hero and did not have much knowledge about government as his predecessors did not sit well with the Whig party. They were worried that Jackson would not be able to make any long-term decisions. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Whigs vs Jacksonian Democrats Political Parties" essay for you Create order The Whig party was developed due to several people disliking the characteristics of Andrew Jackson. Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun are only a few of the many people in the Whig party that were not in favor of Andrew Jackson. The Whig party believed that the government should be involved in the economy. Most of the people in the Whig party were those not in favor of the growth of small businesses because the Whig party was mostly made up of elite business owners. The big business owners could have been afraid of the possibility of having more competition in their field. Also, the idea of expanding the land westward was something that the Whigs were not necessarily against, but at that time they felt as if the expansion would present more problems at the time rather than answers. The Whig party disagreed so passionately against Andrew Jackson because Jackson was in favor of supporting small business owners and not just the big business owners. Jackson wanted to get rid of the so cial hierarchy that crippled the development of the United States. The Jacksonian Democrats were different from the Whig party in many different aspects. The Jacksonian Democrats were in favor of the underdog. They wanted small business owners, and common white men, to get the opportunity to be as successful as the rich white men in the Whig party. Unlike the Whig party, the Jacksonian Democrats believed in expanding the territory westward in order to expand the possibilities for regular individuals. The Jacksonian Democrats believed that this opportunity would allow for monopolies to be broken in America. Andrew Jackson knew that the big business owners were trying to run a monopoly, so he was so adamant in giving other people the opportunity to break the constant cycle of hierarchy. Personally speaking, the Jacksonian Democrats made the best impact in the nineteenth century. The Jacksonian Democrats strived to give the common white male the opportunity to be more and do more. If the Jacksonian Democrats did not attempt to shake things up, there is no clue as to where America would be today. In todays time period, anyone can start his or her own business at the snap of a finger, regardless of his or her gender or race. If Andrew Jackson had not given that opportunity to Americans, Americans would have stayed under the thumb of large companies rather than starting new businesses. In return, the idea of going from rags to riches would have just been a dream that most people would have only imagined. Because of the Jacksonian Democrats, America is now the land for dreamers to make their small wishes become a reality. Both the Jacksonian Democrats and the Whig party helped the structure of two different parties develop. The Jacksonian Democrats wanted to let the common white man expand their horizon, and the Whig party wanted to keep the same successful men successful, rather than giving other white men the opportunity to be like them. Both parties were developed because each party had strong beliefs, and today, whether someone is a democrat or republican depends on their beliefs and values as well

Inequalities in health and illness - 1511 Words

Explain patterned inequalities in health and illness. Evaluate sources of evidence with regards to class, gender, ethnicity and age There are many different reasons why health inequalities exist due to many factors one extremely important one is social class. Socio-economic inequalities have been researched in the UK for many years. In the early 20th century the government started an occupational census which gave the researchers the opportunity to examine health outcomes of social class. The five class scheme was introduced in 1911 and a variation has been used since. In 2001 the National Statistics Socio Economic Classification replaced the older version. Social class is a name used to identify people who are similar in their income†¦show more content†¦This could be seen as offensive, threatening or irrelevant. (Mares ET al.1987) The report said â€Å"The enquiry believes institutional racism is present throughout the NHS and greater effort is needed to combat it. Until that problem is addressed, people from black and minority ethnic communities will not be treated fairly. The cultural, social and spiritual needs of the patients must be taken into account. A major government survey has found high rates of disease among people from ethnic minority background. A health survey for England found that the rate of smoking among Bangladeshi men is twice as higher than the general public. (bbcnews.co.uk) Evidence show that people from lower class backgrounds and ethnic minority’s backgrounds are more likely to suffer more health problems to the majority ethnic group this shows a pattern of inequality. When looking at infant mortality rates in the lowest class evidence shows that double the amount of babies die in comparison to the highest class this can be linked to poverty the poorer you are the worse your chances are even at birth. These following factors increase the risk of infant death; the age of the mother aged less than 18 years is the highest and the lowest for mothers between 30 and 34. With the high teenage pregnancy epidemic and women from lower social class background the most at risk from losing their baby.Show MoreRelatedSociology Inequalities in Health and Illness2621 Words   |  11 PagesTask 3 – Inequalities in Health and Illness (P3,M2,D1) Gender (P3) - Mortality rates: In gender men generally die earlier than women because of many aspects of their life, for instance in general women tend to take care of them self more physically. A lot of women go on diets and a lot of exercise DVDs and detunes are mainly aimed at women. Women in general do try to eat healthy and go on diets whereas men usually arent very aware of their diet and don’t have much intention on improving it. 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Phonetics as a Branch of Linguistics Free Essays

string(162) " a language but the speakers are inconsistent in the way they use them, as for example in the case of the Russian words â€Å"\?\?\?\?\?\?/ \?\?\?\?\?\?†\." GLOSSARY Academic style – also scientific style, a style of speech used in lectures, scientific discussions, conferences, etc Accent – 1) type of pronunciation, that is the way sounds, stress, rhythm and intonation are used in the given language community. 2) see stress. Accommodation – modifications of consonants under the influence of the neighbouring vowels and vice versa. We will write a custom essay sample on Phonetics as a Branch of Linguistics or any similar topic only for you Order Now Acoustic Phonetics – science which deals with the physical property of sounds. Affricates – noise consonants produced with a complete obstruction which is slowly released and the air stream escapes from the mouth with some friction. Allophones – variants of a phoneme, usually occur in different positions in the word, cannot contrast with each other and are not used to differentiate the meaning. Alveolar – sounds produced with the tip of the tongue against the upper teeth (alveolar) ridge. American English – the national variant of the English language spoken in the USA. Amplitude – the distance to which the air particles are displaced from their position of rest by the application of some external force. Apical – sounds articulated with the tip of the tongue. Applied Phonetics – a branch of phonetics used for practical purposes in speech therapy and logopedia. Articulatory Phonetics – also Physiological Phonetics, a branch of phonetics which is concerned with the study of speech sounds as regards their production by the human speech organs. Ascending head – a type of head in which syllables form an ascending sequence. Assimilation – The modification of a consonant by a neighbouring consonant in the speech chain. Auditory Phonetics – a branch of phonetics which is concerned with the way our auditory mechanism works to process speech information, also Perceptual Phonetics. Back vowels – vowels formed with the tongue in the back part of the mouth. Back-advanced vowels – vowels formed with the tongue in the back-advanced position in the mouth. Back-lingual – see velar. BBC English – the accent used on BBC radio and TV channels, is considered a standard English spoken in Great Britain, also Received Pronunciation. Bilabial – sounds produced when both lips are active. Bilingualism – the command of 2 different languages by a person. British English – the national variant of the English language spoken in Great Britain. Broad transcription – also phonemic transcription, provides special symbols for all the phonemes of a language. Broad variations – a subclass of the vertical positions of the tongue which in this case is placed slightly lower in the mouth cavity. Cacuminal – sounds articulated with the tip of the tongue curled back. Central vowels – sounds articulated when the front part of the tongue is raised towards the back part of the hard palate. Checked vowels – short stressed vowels followed by strong voiceless consonants. Checkness – a vowel property which depends on the character of articulatory transition from a vowel to a consonant Close vowels – sounds articulated when the tongue is raised high towards the hard palate. Closed syllable – a syllable which ends in a consonant. Coda – one or more phonemes that follow the syllabic phoneme. Communicative centre – a word or a group of words which conveys the most important point of communication in the sentence or the utterance. Commutation test – the procedure of substituting a sound for another sound in the same phonetic environment with the aim of establishing the phonemic system of a language Comparative Phonetics – a branch of phonetics which studies the correlation between the phonetic systems of two or more languages Consonant – a sound made with air stream that meets an obstruction in the mouth or nasal cavities. Conversational style – also conversational style, a style of speech used in everyday communication. Declamatory style – a style of speech used in stage speech, recitations, etc. Delimitation – segmentation of speech into phrases and intonation groups. Dental – sounds produced with the blade of the tongue against the upper teeth Descending head – a type of head in which syllables form an descending sequence Descriptive Phonetics – a branch of phonetics that studies the phonetic structure of one language only in its static form, synchronically. Devoicing – a process that results in a voiced consonant being pronounced as voiceless. Dialect – a variety of language which differs from others in vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation. Diglossia – a phenomenon when an individual may speak RP in one situation a native local accent in other situations. Dynamic stress – force accent based mainly on the expiratory effect. Diphthong – a vowel which consists of two elements, strong (a nucleus) and weak – (a glide). Diphthongoid – a vowel articulated when the change in the tongue position is fairly weak, in this case the articulated vowel is not pure, but it still consists of one element. Direct methods – methods of phonetic investigation which consist in observing the movements and positions of one’s own or other people’s organs of speech in pronouncing various speech sounds, as well as in analysing one’s own kinaesthetic sensations during the articulation of speech sounds and in comparing them with the resultant auditory impressions. Discourse – a larger context in which sentences occur. Dorsal – sounds produced when the blade of the tongue is active. Duration – the quantity of time during which the same vibratory motion, the same patterns of vibration are maintained. Elision – complete loss of sounds, both vowels and consonants, often observed in spoken English. Enclitic – unstressed words or syllables which refer to the preceding stressed word or syllable. Estuary English – a variety of modified regional speech, a mixture of non-regional and local south-eastern English pronunciation and intonation. Estuary English speakers place themselves â€Å"between Cockney and the Queen†. Experimental Phonetics – a branch of phonetics which deals with research work carried out with the help of different technical devices for measurements and for instrumental analysis Extra-linguistic factors – non-linguistic factors, such as the purpose of utterance, participants and setting or scene of speaking, which result in phonostylistic varieties. Familiar style – see conversational style. Forelingual – sounds articulated with the front part of the tongue Fortis consonants – voiceless consonants pronounced with strong muscular tension and strong expiratory effect. Free variants – variants of a single phoneme which occur in a language but the speakers are inconsistent in the way they use them, as for example in the case of the Russian words â€Å"/ †. You read "Phonetics as a Branch of Linguistics" in category "Essay examples" Free vowel – a weak vowel followed by a weak (lenis) voiced consonant or by no consonant at all. Frequency – a number of vibrations per second. Fricative – constrictive noise consonants articulated when the air escapes with friction through the narrowing formed by speech organs. Front vowels – vowels in the production of which the body of the tongue is in the front part of the mouth cavity and the front of the tongue is raised. Front-retracted vowels – vowels produced with the body of the tongue in the front but retracted position in the mouth cavity. Functional Phonetics – see phonology. General American – the national standard of the English language spoken in the USA. General Phonetics – a branch of phonetics that studies all the sound-producing possibilities of the human speech apparatus and the ways they are used for purposes of human communication by means of language. Glide – the second weak element of English diphthongs. Glottal – sounds articulated in the glottis. Glottal stop – a sound heard when the glottis opens suddenly and produces an explosion resembling a short cough. Glottis – the opening between the vocal cords, through which the air passes. Hard palate – the roof of the mouth. Head – part of the intonation group, contains stressed syllables preceding the nucleus with the intervening unstressed syllables. Hesitation pause – silent or filled pause mainly used in spontaneous speech to gain time to think over what to say next. Historical Phonetics – a branch of phonetics that studies the phonetic structure of a language in its historical development, diachronically. Idiolect – individual speech of members of the same language community Informational style – a style of speech used by radio and television announcers conveying information or in various official situations. Instrumental methods – methods of phonetic investigation based upon registering or computing machines and technical devices Intensity – a property of a sound produced by the amplitude of vibrations. Interdental – sounds articulated with the tip of the tongue projected between the teeth. International Phonetic Alphabet – a set of symbols adopted by the International Phonetic Association as a universal system for the transcription of speech sounds. Intonation – pitch (or melody) variations used to convey meaning. See also prosody Intonation group – an actualized syntagm. Intonation pattern – pitch movements together with loudness and the tempo of speech extending over an intonation group. Intonation style – a complex of interrelated intonational means which is used in a social situation and serves a definite aim of communication. Intonogramme – the picture of the sound wave of a syllable, word or an utterance received with the help of intonograph. Intonograph – a technical device which gives pictures of sound waves of syllables, words and utterances. Kinetic – relating to motion. Labial – sounds articulated by the lips. Labiodental – sounds articulated with the lower lip against the edge of the upper teeth Laryngoscope – a special device which helps to observe the vocal cords, epiglottis and the glottis. Larynx – part of the vocal tract containing the vocal cords. Lateral – sounds produced when the sides of the tongue are active. Lateral plosion – sudden release of air which escapes along the sides of the tongue. Lax – historically short vowels in the articulation of which muscular tension of speech organs is weak. Lenis consonants – voiced consonants pronounced with weak muscular tension. Lip rounding – a position of the lips when their corners are brought toward one another so that the mouth opening is reduced. Loudness – the intensity of sound is produced by the amplitude of vibrations. Manner of articulation – one of the principles of consonant classifications which is connected with the type of obstruction to the air stream. Maximum onsets principle – Medio-lingual – sounds produced with the front part of the tongue raised high to the hard palate Minimal pair – a pair of words or morphemes which are differentiated by one sound only in the same position. Modifications of sounds – positional and combinatory changes of sounds in connected speech. Monophthong – a vowel articulated when the tongue position is stable, in this case the articulated vowel is pure, it consists of one element. Mouth cavity – the cavity between the teeth and the pharynx. Narrow transcription also phonetic transcription, provides special symbols for all the allophones of the same phoneme Narrow variations – a subclass of the vertical positions of the tongue which in this case is raised slightly higher in the mouth cavity Nasal consonants – sounds articulated when the soft palate is lowered and the air stream goes out through the nose. Nasal Cavity – the cavity inside the nose which is separated from the mouth cavity with the soft palate and the uvula. Nasal plosion – sudden release of air by lowering the soft palate so that the air escapes through the nose. National variants – the language of a nation, the standard of its form, the language of its nation’s literature. Neutral vowel – a mid central vowel, also schwa. Neutralisation – the loss of qualitative and quantitative characteristics of vowels in unstressed positions. Noise consonants – consonants in the production of which noise prevails over voice, the air stream passes through a narrowing and produces audible friction (compare with sonorants). Normative Phonetics – see Practical Phonetics. Notation – another term for transcription. Nuclear tone – a significant change of pitch direction on the last strongly accented syllable in an intonation pattern. In general nuclear tones may be falling, rising and level or a combination of these movements. Nucleus – 1) the last strongly accented syllable in an intonation pattern; 2) the most prominent part of a diphthong; 3) the centre of a syllable, usually a vowel. Obstructer mechanism – a group of speech organs which form obstructions during articulation of consonants, it includes tongue, lips, hard and soft palate and teeth. Occlusive – sounds produced when a complete obstruction to the air stream is formed. Onset – sounds that precede the nucleus of a syllable. Open syllable – a syllable which ends in a vowel. Open vowels – vowels produced when the tongue is in the low part of the mouth cavity. Opposition – see phonetic oppositions. Oral consonants – sounds articulated when the soft palate is raised and the air stream goes out through the mouth. Organs of speech – the human organs which together with biological functions take part in sound production. Palatal – sounds produced with the front part of the tongue raised high to the hard palate. Palatalisation – softening of consonants due to the raised position of the middle part of the tongue towards the hard palate. Palato-alveolar – sounds made with the tip or the blade of the tongue against the teeth ridge and the front part of the tongue raised towards the hard palate, thus having two places of articulation (two foci). Paralinguistics – a branch of linguistics which is concerned with non-verbal means of communication. Perceptual Phonetics – see Auditory Phonetics. Pharynx – the part of the throat which connects the larynx to the upper part of the vocal tract. Phonation – voicing, the vibration of the vocal cords. Phone – a sound realised in speech and which bears some individual, stylistic and social characteristics of the speaker. Phoneme – the smallest further indivisible language unit that exists in the speech of all the members of a given language community as such speech sounds which are capable of distinguishing one word of the same language or one grammatical form of a word from another grammatical form of the same word. Phonemic transcription – see broad transcription. Phonetic mistakes – pronunciation mistakes made when an allophone of some phoneme is replaced by an allophone of a different phoneme. Phonetic oppositions – comparison of sounds, words and morphemes in order to single out their minimal distinctive features. Phonetic transcription – see narrow transcription. Phonetics – a branch of linguistics which is concerned with the human noises by which the thought is actualized. Phonetics analyses the nature of these sounds, their combinations and their functions in relation to the meaning. Phonological analysis – analysis whose aim is to determine which differences of sounds are phonemic/non-phonemic and to find the inventory of the phonemes of this or that language Phonological mistakes – pronunciation mistakes made when an allophone of the phoneme is replaced by another allophone of the same phoneme; in this case the meaning of the word is affected. Phonology – also Functional Phonetics, a branch of phonetics that is concerned with the social functions of different phonetic phenomena. Phonosemantics – a branch of psycholinguistics that studies the relations between the sound structure of a word and its meaning. Phonostylistics – a branch of phonetics that studies the way phonetic means of the language function in various oral realizations of the language. Phonotactics – the study of the possible phoneme combinations of a language. Physiological Phonetics – see Articulatory Phonetics. Pitch – the auditory characteristic of a sound, it corresponds to the fundamental frequency (the rate of vibrations of the vocal cords). Pitch level – a particular height of pitch. Pitch range – the interval between two pitch levels or two differently pitched syllables or parts of a syllable. Place of articulation – the place in the vocal tract where the air stream is obstructed. Plosives – consonants produced when the air stream is completely stopped for a short time, also stops. Post-alveolar – sounds articulated with the tip or the blade of the tongue against the back part of the teeth ridge Power mechanism – a group of speech organs which supplies energy for sound production, it includes lungs, diaphragm, windpipe, bronchi. Practical Phonetics – a branch of phonetics which teaches how to pronounce sounds correctly and what intonation to use to convey this or that meaning or emotion. It is called Normative Phonetics because teaches the â€Å"norm† of English pronunciation. Pragmalinguistics – a branch of linguistics that studies what linguistic means and ways of influence on a hearer to choose in order to bring about certain effects in the process of communication. Pragmaphonetics – a branch of Pragmalinguistics whose domain is to analyse the functioning and speech effects of the sound system of a language. Pre-head – the unstressed syllables which precede the first stressed syllable of the head. Primary stress – the strongest stress compared with the other stresses in a word. Principal allophone – allophones which do not undergo any significant changes in the chain of speech. Proclitic – unstressed words or syllables which refer to the following stressed word or syllable Prosody – a complex unity formed by significant variations of pitch, tempo, loudness and timbre. Psycholinguistics – a branch of linguistics which covers an extremely broad rea, from acoustic phonetics to language pathology, and includes such problems as acquisition of language by children, memory, attention, speech perception, second-language acquisition and so on. Publicistic style – a style of speech used in public discussions on political, judicial or economic topics, sermons, parliamentary debates Qualitative – connected with the spectral characteristics of a sound. Quantitative – referring to the length of a sound. Received Pronunciation (RP) – the national standard of the English language spoken in Great Britain. Reduced vowel – a weakened vowel. Reduction – weakening (either qualitative or quantitative) of vowels in unstressed positions. Resonator mechanism – a group of speech organs which can change their shape and volume, thus forming the spectral component of the sound, it includes nasal and mouth cavities. Rhyme Rhythm – recurrence of stressed syllables at more or less equal intervals of time in speech. Rhythmic group – a speech segment which contains a stressed syllable and a number of unstressed ones. The most frequent type of an English rhythmic group includes 2-4 syllables, one of which is stressed. Rounded – a sound articulated with added lip rounding. Schwa – see neutral vowel. Scientific style – see academic style. Secondary allophones – allophones which undergo some predictable changes in different phonetic context. Secondary stress – a less strong stress than the primary one, usually precedes the primary stress in a word. Segmental Phonetics – a division of phonetics which is concerned with individual sounds (â€Å"segments† of speech) Segmentation – division of speech into phrases and intonation groups. Semantic centre – see communicative centre. Sentence stress – the greater degree of prominence given to certain words in an utterance. Sociolinguistics – a branch of linguistics that studies the way the language interacts with society. Soft palate – the back, soft part of the hard palate. Sonorants – consonants in the production of which noise prevails over voice, the air stream passes through a narrowing and produces audible friction (compare with sonorants). Sonority – a degree of loudness relative to that of other sounds with the same length, stress and pitch. Special Phonetics – a branch of phonetics which is concerned with the study of the phonetic structure of one language only. Spectrogram – a picture of the spectrum of sounds, their frequency, intensity and time. Spectrograph – a device which carries out the spectral analysis of speech. Stops – see plosives Stress – a greater degree of prominence which is caused by loudness, pitch, the length of a syllable and the vowel quality. Stress-timed languages – in these languages stressed syllables tend to occur at relatively regular intervals irrespectively of the number of unstressed syllables separating them. Strong vowel – the full form of a vowel in the stressed position. Stylistic modifications – sound changes which happen under the influence of extra-linguistics factors. Subsidiary allophone – see secondary allophone. Suprasegmental Phonetics – a division of phonetics whose domain is larger units of connected speech: syllables, words, phrases and texts Syllable – a sound sequence, consisting of a centre which has little or no obstruction to airflow and which sounds comparatively loud; before and after this centre there will be greater obstruction to airflow and less loud sound. Syllable-timed languages – in these languages all syllables, whether stressed or unstressed, tend to occur at regular time-intervals and the time between stressed syllables will be shorter or longer depending on the number of unstressed syllables separating them. Syntagm – a group of words which is semantically and syntactically complete. Tail – any syllables between the nucleus and the end of the utterance. Tamber – the same as timbre. Tempo – the rate of the utterance and pausation. Tense – historically long vowels in the articulation of which muscular tension of speech organs is great. Terminal tone – the nucleus and the tail of the utterance. Tertiary stress – a less strong stress than the primary one, usually follows the primary stress in a word. Theoretical Phonetics – a branch of phonetics which is mainly concerned with the functioning of phonetic units in the language. It discusses the problems of phonetics in academic terms and gives a scientific approach to the phonetic theory. Timbre – voice quality. Tone languages – the meaning of words in these languages depends on the variations of voice pitch in relation to neighbouring syllables. Tongue – the most movable and flexible speech organ. Transcription – the system of symbols to represent speech in written form. Unstressed – bearing no stress. Utterance – a spoken sentence or a phrase. Uvula – the end of the soft palate. Velar – consonants produced with the back part of the tongue raised towards the soft palate Vibrator mechanism – a group of speech organs which vibrate while the air passes through, thus producing voice, it includes larynx, vocal cords, glottis. Vocal cords – two soft folds in the larynx which can be brought together and apart, thus producing voice. Voice quality – timbre. Voiced consonants – sounds produced when the vocal cords are brought together and vibrate. Voiceless consonants – sounds produced when the vocal cords are brought together and vibrate. Vowel – a sound in the production of which no obstructions are made. Weak form – the unstressed form of a sound or a word. Windpipe – trachea or air passage. Word stress – a greater degree of prominence on one of the syllables in a word. I. PHONETICS AS A BRANCH OF LINGUISTICS. BRANCHES OF PHONETICS. METHODS OF INVESTIGATION 1. 1 Introduction Knowledge of the structure of sound system and its articulatory and acoustic characteristics is very important in teaching and learning foreign languages. The teacher has to know the starting point from which to begin teaching; he must be able to point out the differences between the pupil’s mother tongue and the language to be learnt. He should be able to choose adequate training exercises. That’s why it is vital to know, at least, the basic principles of this science. The term â€Å"phonetics† comes from the Greek words meaning â€Å"sound or matters pertaining to voice†. What does phonetics study? It is concerned with the human noises by which the thought is actualized (that is the oral aspect of speech communication). However phonetics takes the content level into consideration too. Only meaningful sound sequences are regarded as speech and phonetics is concerned only with such sounds which are carriers of organized information of a language. Phonetics analyses the nature of these sounds, their combinations and their functions in relation to the meaning. No kind of linguistic study can be carried out without constant consideration of the material on the expression level. Consequently, phonetics is important in the study of a language. An understanding of it is a basis for any adequate understanding of the structure or functioning of a language. It follows from this that phonetics is a basic branch – many would say the most fundamental branch of linguistics, because it gives a language a definite form. The vocabulary and grammar of a language can function only when the language has a phonetic form. So grammar and vocabulary depend on phonetics, they cannot exist outside of phonetics, because all lexical and grammar phenomena are expressed phonetically. Neither linguistic theory nor linguistic description can do without phonetics and is complete without it. Phonetics, being a branch of linguistics, occupies a peculiar position. On the one hand it serves as a means of expressing grammatical and lexical phenomena. On the other hand it has laws of its own which are independent of grammar and vocabulary. Besides it is closely connected with a number of other sciences, such as physics, biology, physiology, psychology etc. The more phonetics develops the more various branches of science become involved in the field of phonetic investigation. Phonetics is not a new science. It was known to the ancient Greeks and to the ancient Hindus. The scientists of that time were concerned with speech sounds only. It may be said that the orthography of all written languages which use alphabets developed in the course of a very detailed phonetic analysis. Nevertheless, phonetics as an independent science began to develop only in the 19th century, before that it used to be a part of grammar. There has been considerable progress and growth in the 20th century. New concepts, methods of investigation, new theories and schools have been developed. Not only has the sphere of investigation in phonetics become wider, but several new branches of phonetics have also arisen. So our further point will be made on the branches and divisions of phonetics. 1. 2 Branches and Divisions of Phonetics Everyone who starts learning a foreign language first of all is introduced into practical or normative phonetics. It studies the material form of phonetic phenomena in relation to meaning. It teaches how to pronounce sounds correctly and what intonation to use to convey this or that meaning or emotion. It is called normative because we are to teach the â€Å"norm† of English pronunciation. Theoretical phonetics is mainly concerned with the functioning of phonetic units in the language. It discusses the problems of phonetics in academic terms and gives a scientific approach to the phonetic theory. Other two important branches of phonetics are special and general phonetics. Special phonetics may be subdivided into descriptive and historical. Special descriptive phonetics is concerned with the study of the phonetic structure of one language only in its static form, synchronically and the domain of special historical phonetics is the phonetic structure of a language in its historical development, diachronically. Historical phonetics is part of the history of a language. Its aim is to trace and establish the successive changes in the phonetic system of a given language at different stages of its historical development. It is very important for the study of the modern phonetic system because without a historical approach it is impossible to understand how this modern phonetic system has developed and what further changes it is likely to undergo. General phonetics studies all the sound-producing possibilities of the human speech apparatus and the ways they are used for purposes of human communication by means of language, it finds out what types of speech sounds exist in various languages of the world, how they are produced and what role they play in forming and expressing thoughts; it also determines the nature, types and role of other phonetic means, such as word stress and intonation. General phonetics is based on the material which the special phonetics of a great number of languages provides; it also uses data of other sciences: physics, biology, psychology, speech pathology, etc. So it makes a number of general conclusions concerning the complex nature of speech sounds, analyses phonetic phenomena from different points of view and formulates phonetic theories. On the one hand general phonetics is based on the data of special phonetics; on the other hand it provides valuable theoretical material which enables us to understand and to interpret correctly different phonetic phenomena of concrete languages. Another important division is into phonology and phonetics. According to the conception of the Prague Linguistic School phonetics and phonology are two independent branches of science, phonetics is a biological science which is concerned with the physical and physiological characteristics of speech sounds, and phonology is a linguistic science which is concerned with the social functions of different phonetic phenomena. Another term for this branch is functional phonetics. The father of Phonology is Prince Nicholas Trubetskoi. His work â€Å"Fundementals of Phonology† separates phonetics and phonology, saying that they are not related and that phonetics is not part of linguistics, but a biological science that deals only with the physiological aspect of speech sounds. Nevertheless it doesn’t seem logical to separate function from phonetic forms, thus excluding phonetics from the linguistic sciences. So nowadays most phoneticians consider both phonetics and phonology part of linguistics. Phonetics itself is subdivided into 3 sub branches, each dealing with special aspects of sounds, their production by a speaker and perception by a listener. Phonetic processing starts on a neurophonetic level, in the brain of a speaker, where the formation of the concept takes place. The human brain controls the behaviour of the articulatory (or speech) organs and makes them move in a particular way. The branch of phonetics which is concerned with the study of speech sounds as regards their production by the human speech organs is called articulatory (physiological) phonetics. In other words it deals with the way human organs join to produce sounds. Articulatory basis of a language is a set of articulation tendencies characteristic for a particular language community, so articulatory gesturing is culturally specific and not universal. Different articulations produce different acoustic effects, or different speech sounds. Consequently, speech sounds have a second aspect, a physical or, more exactly, an acoustic one, which constitutes the domain of acoustic phonetics. Acoustic phonetics involves knowledge of physics as it deals with the physical property of sounds. Any sound is a pressure disturbance transmitted through an elastic medium. When articulatory gesturing starts it causes disturbance (a sound wave) in the medium, which is transmitted from one particle of the medium to another and is reproduced as a sound wave travels from the source to the listener. Perceptual or auditory phonetics is concerned with the way our auditory mechanism works to process speech information. There is a boundary line between reception (which doesn’t involve understanding) and perception (which involves decoding and understanding). Phonetic perception is a product of sensation and interpretation of speech elements which take place in a human brain. Phonetics is also divided into two major components: segmental phonetics, which is concerned with individual sounds (â€Å"segments† of speech) and suprasegmental phonetics whose domain is larger units of connected speech: syllables, words, phrases and texts. There are a number of other divisions of phonetics. We may speak about comparative phonetics whose aims are to study the correlation between the phonetic systems of two or more languages and find out the correspondences between speech sounds and intonation structures. Its data are extremely useful in teaching and learning a foreign language as they show differences and similarities of the phonetic systems of two or more languages and predict possible difficulties for the learners. It should be mentioned that the most difficult phonetic phenomena are those absent in the mother tongue. For example, the sounds [? -? ] cause a lot of difficulties for the Russian students of English, as there are no sounds with similar articulations in the Russian language. On the other hand the most stable and persistent pronunciation mistakes are made in those phenomena which are similar in the two languages but not exactly the same. For example, falling intonation. In English it goes to the very bottom of the voice, while in Russian it is not so steep and it does not reach the same low note as in English. The data of applied phonetics are essential for practical purposes in speech therapy and logopedia. It helps to correct speech defects and to teach deaf-mutes (or people who do not speak as a result of an accident or some disease) to speak. Experimental phonetics deals with research work which is carried out with the help of different technical devices, machines for measurements and for instrumental analysis. Phonetics as a whole and all of its branches have not come into being all at once: they developed gradually, and their development was closely connected with and determined by the development of other branches of linguistics and other sciences. 1. 3. Phonetics and Social Sciences So our further point should be made in connection with the relationship between phonetics and social sciences. Language is not an isolated phenomenon; it is a part of society. No branch of linguistics can be studied without taking into consideration at least the study of other aspects of society. In the past two decades we have seen the development of quite distinct interdisciplinary subjects, such as sociolinguistics (and sociophonetics correspondingly), psycholinguistics, mathematical linguistics and others. As their titles suggest, they are studied from two points of view and thus require knowledge of both. Sociophonetics studies the ways in which pronunciation functions in society. It is interested in the ways in which phonetic structures vary in response to different social functions. Society here is used in its broadest sense, it includes such phenomena as nationality, regional and social groups, age, gender, different situations of speaking – talking to equals, superiors, on the â€Å"job†, when we are trying to persuade, inform, agree and so on. The aim of sociophonetics is to correlate phonetic variations with situational factors. It’s obvious that these data are vital for language learners who are to observe social norms and to accommodate to different situations they find themselves in. One more example of interdisciplinary overlap is the relation of linguistics to psychology. Psycholinguistics covers an extremely broad area, from acoustic phonetics to language pathology, and includes such problems as acquisition of language by children, memory, attention, speech perception, second-language acquisition and so on. Phonosemantics studies the relations between the sound structure of a word and its meaning. There is some data proving that the sounds that constitute a word have their own â€Å"inner† meaning, which causes certain associations in the listener’s mind. For example, close vowels produce the effect of â€Å"smallness†, and voiceless consonants sound more â€Å"unpleasant† and â€Å"rude† than their voiced counterparts, etc. Some sounds are associated with certain colours. These data may be helpful in teaching, for example, â€Å"tying† together the sound structure of a word and its meaning, thus facilitating the process of memorising new words. Scientists have always been interested how children acquire their own language without being taught. They hope that these data might be useful in teaching grown-up people a foreign language, too. Pragmalinguistics is a comparatively new science, which studies what linguistic means and ways of influence on a hearer to choose in order to bring about certain effects in the process of communication. Correspondently the domain of pragmaphonetics is to analyse the functioning and speech effects of the sound system of a language. Phonetics is closely connected with a number of other sciences such as physics (or rather acoustics), mathematics, biology, physiology and others. The more phonetics develops the more various branches of science become involved in the field of phonetic investigation. Phonetics has become important in a number of technological fields connected with communication. Phoneticians work alongside the communication engineers in devising and perfecting machines that can understand, that is respond to human speech, or machines for reading aloud the printed page and vice versa, converting speech directly into printed words on paper. Although scientists are still dissatisfied with the quality of synthesized speech, these data are applied in security systems, answering machines and for other technical purposes. 1. 4. Methods of Phonetic Investigation Methods applied in investigating the sound matter of the language have changed greatly with the development of technology and computer science. From the beginning of phonetics the phonetician has relied mainly on what he could feel of his own speech and on what he could hear both of his own and the informant’s speech. Such methods are called direct and consist in observing the movements and positions of one’s own or other people’s organs of speech in pronouncing various speech sounds, as well as in analysing one’s own kinaesthetic sensations (muscle tense) during the articulation of speech sounds and in comparing them with the resultant auditory impressions. Investigation by means of this method can be effective only if the persons employing it have been specially trained and have acquired considerable skills in associating the qualities of the perceived sound with the nature of the articulations producing it. Instrumental methods were introduced into phonetics in the last century to supplement the impressions deriving from the human senses. These methods are based upon registering or computing machines and technical devices, such as spectrograph, intonograph, x-ray photography and cinematography, laryngoscope and some others. The introduction of machines for measurements and for instrumental analysis into phonetics has resulted in their use for detailed study of many of the phenomena which are present in the sound wave or in the articulatory process at any given moment. These techniques can be very useful both for discovering in detail how English speakers produce their speech sounds, and for demonstrating to learners of English their pronunciation. Computers can provide additional pronunciation training, displaying useful information on the screen and being a powerful visual aid for effective phonetic practice. One more advantage of the modern experimental study of speech is the enormous amount of varied spoken speech data stored on computers. It facilitates the process of looking for cross-language differences and similarities. The data obtained from instrumental analysis supplement and verify those obtained by means of direct observation, thus making the research results more detailed and precise. II. THE ARTICULATORY CHARACTERISTIC OF THE ENGLISH SPEECH SOUNDS 2. 1. The Anatomo-mechanical Aspect of Sound Production Speech is impossible without the speech mechanism. So now our attention will be focused on the articulatory aspect of speech sounds. Speech sounds are acoustic effects of the articulatory movements and positions of the human speech organs. The immediate source of speech sounds is the human speech mechanism developed and perfected in the process of the historical development of man. The organs of speech are the object of linguistic investigation mainly from the point of view of the functions they perform in speech production. So before analysing the linguistic function of phonetic units we need to know how the speech mechanism acts in producing oral speech. According to their main sound-producing functions the speech organs can be roughly divided into the following four groups: the power mechanism (lungs, diaphragm, windpipe, bronchi), the vibrator mechanism (larynx, vocal cords, glottis), the resonator mechanism (nasal and mouth cavities) and the obstructer mechanism (tongue, lips, hard and soft palate, teeth). From the lungs through the wind-pipe the air-stream passes to the larynx, containing the vocal cords. The opening between the vocal cords, through which the air passes, is called the glottis. The linguistic function of the vocal cords onsists in providing the source of energy necessary for speech production. When the vocal cords are kept wide apart (i. e. the glottis is open) the air passes between the cords and the result is non-phonic breath. Then the vocal cords may be drawn together tightly, so that air cannot pass between them. The sudden opening of the glottis produces an explosion resembling a short cough; this sound is c alled the glottal stop. It often occurs in English when it reinforces or even replaces the sounds [p], [t], [k] or even when it precedes the energetic articulation of vowel sounds. The most important role of the vocal cords is their participation in the production of voice. The effect of voice is achieved when the vocal cords are brought loosely together, creating an obstacle to the air stream; when the air pressure becomes very strong the air forces its way between the vocal cords thus making the, vibrate. When, as is usual, these vibrations are regular, they produce vocal tone, or voice, whose pitch depends on the frequency of vibrations. We are able to vary the speed of vibration of our vocal cords and thus to change the pitch. Conscious variations of pitch are responsible for intonation. We are also able to modify the size of the puff of the air which escapes at each vibration, thus changing the amplitude of the vibration, which corresponds to the loudness of the sound heard by a listener. The air-stream, having passed through the vocal cords, is now subject to further modification, according to the shape of the pharynx, mouth and nasal cavities. The direction in which the air-stream will follow from the pharynx depends on the position of the soft palate. When it is lowered, the pharynx opens into the nasal cavity. When it is risen, the air-stream comes to the mouth cavity. As in the mouth cavity a lot of movable speech organs are situated it can easily change its shape, thus forming the majority of speech sounds. The movable (or active) speech organs, situated in the mouth cavity are: the tongue, the soft palate with the uvula, the lips and the lower jaw. Of all the movable organs within the mouth cavity the tongue is the most flexible and active. For convenience, the surface of the tongue or divided into several parts: the most flexible part of the tongue, which normally lies opposite the teeth ridge, is called the blade, the tip of the tongue being its extreme point. The part of the tongue next to the blade is called the front of the tongue. Then come the back and the root of the tongue. The tongue being the most active speech organ in the mouth cavity, the main principles of the majority of articulatory classifications of vowels are based on the movements and positions of the tongue. 2. 2. The system of English Vowels The movements of the body of the tongue provide a convenient articulatory basis for classifying vowels according to two principles: 1) horizontal and 2) vertical movements of the tongue. According to the horizontal movement five classes of English vowels are distinguished. They are: 1) front [i:], [e], [e? ], [ ], [? ] 2) front-retracted [? ], [ ] 3) central [? ], [? :], [? ], [ ], [a? ], [a? ] 4) back [? ], [? :], [u:], [a:], [ ] 5) back-advanced [? ], [ ] Not all phoneticians single out the classes of front-retracted and back-advanced vowels. So both [i:] and [? vowels are classed as front, and both [u:] and [? ] – as back. The point is that the vowels in these two pairs differ in quality which is partially due to the raised part of the tongue. So in this case a more detailed classification seems to be a more precise one, since it adequately reflects the articulatory distinctions actually present in the language. Now let’s view another articulatory characteristic of v owels, which is based on the vertical movement of the tongue. The way phoneticians of different schools approach this aspect is also slightly different. Some scholars distinguish three classes of vowels: high (or close), mid and low (or open) vowels. But to mark all significant changes in vowel quality it is not enough to single out these three groups of vowels. For instance, both English vowels [i:] and [? ] belong to the group of close vowels, but when the vowel [? ] is articulated the front of the tongue is not so high in the mouth as it is in the case of the vowel [i:]. Russian phoneticians made the classification more detailed distinguishing two subclasses in each class: broad and narrow variations of the 3 vertical positions of the tongue. Thus the following 6 groups of vowels are distinguished: 1) close a) narrow [i:], [u:] b) broad [? ], [? ], [ ], [ ] 2) mid a) narrow [e], [? :], [? ], [e? ], [ ] b) broad [? ], [? ] 3) open a) narrow [ ], [? :], [ ] b) broad [? ], [a? ], [a? ], [? ], [a:]. In addition to the above-mentioned principle of the classification of vowels phoneticians suggest five other criteria: 1) stability of articulation 2) lip position 3) character of the vowel end 4) length 5) tenseness The stability of articulation specifies the actual position of the articulating organ in the process of the articulation. There are two possible variants: a) the tongue position is stable, in this case the articulated vowel is pure, it consists of one element and is called a monophthong; and b) the tongue position changes, in this case a vowel consists of two elements, the first one is strong, it is a nucleus, the second element is very weak – it is a glide. There exists a third variety, when the change in the tongue position is fairly weak, in this case the articulated vowel is not pure, but it still consists of one element, such vowels are called diphthongoids. So according to this principle the English vowels are subdivided into: a) monophthongs [? ], [? ], [e], [? :], [? ], [? ], [? :], [? ], [? ], [a:] b) diphthongs [ ], [ ], [e? ], [ ], [ ], [a? ], [a? ], [ ] c) diphthongoids [i:], [u:] Some phoneticians, however, do not share this way of thinking and do not distinguish diphthongoids. But for the learners of English it is important to know this differentiation as it is useful for teaching purposes. Besides in modern English the tendency for diphthongization is becoming gradually stronger. Another feature of English vowels is lip rounding. Traditionally three lip positions are distinguished: spread, neutral and rounded. In English lip rounding is not relevant phonologically (it means that no two words can be distinguished on its basis). Our next point should be made about another characteristic of English vowels. It’s checkness. The quality of all English monophthongs in the stressed position is strongly affected by the following consonant. If a stressed vowel is followed by a strong (fortis) voiceless consonant it is cut off by it. In this case the end of the vowel is strong and the vowel is called checked. If a vowel is followed by a weak (lenis) voiced consonant or by no consonant at all the end of it is weak. In this case the vowel is called free. Now it should be useful to consider another articulatory characteristic of English vowels, that is their length or quantity. The English monophthongs are traditionally divided into short [? ], [e], [? ], [? ], [? ], [? ], [? ] and long ones [i:], [a:], [? :], [? :], [u:]. It should be noted that vowel length or quantity has for a long time been the point of disagreement among phoneticians. The problem is whether variations in quantity are meaningful (relevant) or not. Let’s look at the pairs of words: [b? d – bi:d], [s? t – si:t]. Are they distinguished from one another by the opposition of different length (that’s the approach of D. Jones, an outstanding British phonetician) or is the difference in quality (or in other words the position of the active organ of speech) decisive here? Most Russian phoneticians are in favour of the second conception. They state that a feature can be systemic if it does not depend on the context. As to the length of English vowels, it varies and depends on a lot of factors, the first being phonetic context. The shortest are vowels followed by voiceless consonants and the longest are in free position. For example in â€Å"meat† [i:] is half as long as the [i:] in â€Å"me†, but may approximately have the same duration as the [? ] in â€Å"mid†. But still these words â€Å"mid† and â€Å"meat† are perceived as different words because the vowels are different in quality. So no matter what time is required for the articulation of these vowels, the main distinctive feature is quality, not quantity. As for tenseness we shall only mention that special instrumental analysis shows that historically long vowels are tense, and historically short ones are lax. To sum it up we may conclude that among all the articulatory features of English vowels only two are relevant: the stability of articulation and tongue position. 2. 3. The System of English Consonants Before passing on to the classification of English consonants the difference between consonants and vowels should be considered. Acoustically consonants are noises, not musical tones like vowels. From the articulatory point of view the difference is due to the work of speech organs. In case of consonants various obstructions are made. As to the classification of English consonants there are few ways of seeing the situation. One of them is the classification according to the type of obstacle. On this ground two large classes of consonants are distinguished: 1) occlusive, which are produced when a complete obstruction is formed: [t, d, p, b, k, g], [m, n, ? ]; 2) constrictive, which are produced when an incomplete obstruction is formed: [s, z, f, v, O, ? , ? , ? , h], [w, r, l, j]. Each of the 2 classes is subdivided into noise consonants (these are those in the production of which noise prevails over tone) and sonorants (in the production of which tone component prevails). Noise occlusive consonants are called stops because the air stream is completely stopped at some point of articulation and then released with an explosion, that is why they are also called plosives: [t, d, p, b, k, g]. Constrictive noise consonants are called fricatives, because the air escapes through the narrowing with friction: [s, z, f, v, O, ? , ? , ? , h]. Occlusive-constrictive consonants or affricates are noise consonants produced with a complete obstruction which is slowly released and the air stream escapes from the mouth with some friction. There are only two affricates in English: [? ,? . Other phoneticians suggest that the first and basic principle of classification should be the degree of noise. So consonants are divided first into noise consonants and sonorants and then each group is divided into smaller groups. Another very important principle is the place of articulation. According to this principle English consonants are classed into labial, lingual and glottal. I. Labial consonants in their turn are subdivided into a) bilabial (produced when both lips are active) [w, m, p, b]; b) labio-dental (articulated with the lower lip against the edge of the upper teeth) [f, v]. II. Among the class of lingual consonants three subclasses are distinguished: a) forelingual; b) medio-lingual; c) back-lingual. Forelingual consonants are also of three kinds: 1) apical (articulated with the tip of the tongue) [t, d, s, z, O, ? , ? , ? , ? , ? , n, l]. 2) dorsal (produced when the blade of the tongue is active). There are no dorsal consonants in English. In Russian these are the sounds [?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?]. 3) cacuminal (articulated with the tip of the tongue curled back). There is only one cacuminal consonant in English – [r]. According to the place of obstruction forelingual consonants may be: – interdental, rticulated with the tip of the tongue projected between the teeth: [O, ? ]; – dental, produced with the blade of the tongue against the upper teeth: the Russian [?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?]; – alveolar, produced with the tip of the tongue against the upper teeth ridge: [t, d, s, z, n, l]; – post-alveolar, articulated with the tip or th e blade of the tongue against the back part of the teeth ridge: [r]; – palato-alveolar, made with the tip or the blade of the tongue against the teeth ridge and the front part of the tongue raised towards the hard palate, thus having two places of articulation (two foci): [? ? , ? , ? ]. b) mediolingual consonants are produced with the front part of the tongue raised high to the hard palate, so they are always palatal: [j]. c) backlingual consonants are also called velar, because they are produced with the back part of the tongue raised towards the soft palate: [k, g, ? ]. III. The glottal consonant [h] is articulated in the glottis. There are no glottal consonants in Russian. One more articulatory characteristic which should be mentioned is the position of the soft palate. According to this principle consonants may be oral and nasal. There are only three nasal consonants in English, which require the lowered position of the soft palate: [m, n, ]. The rest of the consonants are oral because in their production the soft palate is raised and the air escapes through the mouth. Our next point will be made in connection with another sound property, that is voice-voiceless characteristic. When the vocal cords are brought together and vibrate we hear voice and the consonants are voiced: [b, d, g, v, z, ? , ? , ? . When the vocal cords are apart and do not vibrate we hear only noise and the consonants are voiceless: [p, t, k, f, s, O, ? , ? ]. It should be noted that the difference between such pairs as [p, b], [t, d] and so on is based not only on the absence or presence of the voice component, as voiced consonants are not fully voiced in all word positions, in word final position, for example, they are partially devoiced. There’s also energy difference . All voiced consonants are weak or lenis and all voiceless consonants are strong or fortis. Summing it up, it should be mentioned that the most important articulatory features, which could serve as a criterion for grouping consonants into functionally similar classes, are: type of obstruction; place of articulation and the active organ of speech; force of articulation. The rest of the characteristics are considered to be irrelevant, as they are of no importance from the phonological point of view, but they provide necessary and useful information for teaching purposes. It is for this reason that they are normally included into the classification. III. THE ACOUSTIC AND AUDITORY ASPECTS OF THE ENGLISH SPEECH SOUNDS The auditory aspect of any sound is inseparable from its acoustic aspect and acoustic phonetics is closely connected with auditory phonetics and both may, therefore, be considered together. Objectively sound is a physical phenomenon, a kind of moving energy generated by some vibrating body. Subjectively sound is our perception of the vibrations of the air next to our ear-drum. People can perceive not all vibrations of the air but only when they occur at the rate of sixteen to twenty thousand times per second. Sounds may be periodical and non-periodical. If the vibrations of a physical body (vocal cords in our case) are rhythmical, the sound waves are periodical. The auditory impression of such periodical waves is a musical tone or a speech tone. If the wave is non-periodical, it is perceived as noise. Sound has a number of physical properties which all exist and manifest themselves simultaneously. They can be singled out from the others only for purposes of analysis. The first of these properties is frequency which is a number of vibrations per second. Our perception of the frequency is the pitch of the sound. The greater the frequency, the higher the pitch and vice versa. The frequency depends on certain physical properties of the vibrator, such as its mass, length and tension. The greater the mass of the vibrator, the slower its vibrations and the lower the pitch. The longer the vibrator, the slower the vibrations and the lower the frequency and the pitch. Here the difference between men and women and adults and children voices lies. Men’s and adults’ voices are lower than women’s and children’s are, because their vocal cords are thicker and longer. Tension depends on the elasticity of the vocal cords. The vocal cords of elderly people are not as elastic as the vocal cords of younger people, children especially, so their voices sound rather low. As the tension increases – the frequency increases and the pitch rises. The second physical property of sound is intensity, changes in which are perceived as variations in the loudness of sound. The intensity of sound is produced by the amplitude of vibrations (that is by the distance to which the air particles are displaced from their position of rest by the application of some external force). Intensity is measured in decibels. The intensity and frequency of sound are closely interdependent. The same amount of energy will produce either greater amplitude with a lower frequency or a higher frequency with smaller amplitude. Therefore if you increase the frequency without increasing the amount of energy you will shorten the amplitude and therefore reduce the intensity, that is produce a less loud sound. People are able to produce vowel sounds of various qualities or timbres. This is achieved through the action of the resonator mechanism. So the production and differentiation of vowels is based on the acoustic phenomenon that is called resonance. Sounds coming from different resonators travel different lengths (distances) or have different carrying power. The distance is proportional to the volume of the resonator and the size of its orifice. Any sound has a certain duration or length. In other words it can exist and move only in time. The duration or length of a sound is the quantity of time during which the same vibratory motion, the same patterns of vibration are maintained. For this reason, the duration of a sound is often referred to as is quantity. The duration is measured in millisecond. We perceive the variations in duration as tempo or speed of utterance. In speech there are not definite boundaries between different speech sounds. So it’s very difficult to measure the length of separate sounds. In addition it should be mentioned that along with various articulatory classifications of speech sounds, there exist acoustic descriptions and classifications. The chief drawback of articulatory classifications is that they don’t describe and define all shades of typologically identical speech sounds, especially vowels. Besides, one and the same speech sound can be pronounced by different people with slightly different positions and movements of their speech organs. Acoustic classifications seem to overcome these difficulties as they are more detailed and accurate. The first acoustic classification was based on spectrographic analysis. It was worked out by Roman Jakobson, C. G. M. Fant and M. Halle. However, acoustic classification, though more precise, are not practically applied in teaching. The acoustic features of speech sounds can not be seen directly or felt. But there are some other fields of the application of acoustic phonetics: speech synthesis, health service, security systems, etc. IV. THE FUNCTIONAL ASPECT OF SPEECH SOUNDS 4. 1 Phoneme and Allophones Phoneticians not only describe and classify the material form of phonetic units. They are also interested in the way in which sound phenomena function in a particular language and what part they play in communication. The branch of phonetics that studies the linguistic function of consonant and vowel sounds, syllabic structures, word accent and prosodic features is called phonology. Unlike phonetics itself, whose domain is articulatory and acoustic features, phono How to cite Phonetics as a Branch of Linguistics, Essay examples